On Unix-like operating systems, sed is a stream editor: it filters and transforms text.

This page covers the GNU/Linux version of sed.

Description

The sed stream editor performs basic text transformations on an input stream (a file, or input from a pipeline). While in some ways similar to an editor which permits scripted edits (such as ed), sed works by making only one pass over the input(s), and is consequently more efficient. But it is sed’s ability to filter text in a pipeline which particularly distinguishes it from other types of editors.

• Description
• Syntax
• Sed programs
• How sed works
• Selecting lines with sed
• Overview of regular expression syntax
• Often-used commands
• The s command
• Less frequently-used commands
• Commands for sed gurus
• Commands specific to GNU sed
• GNU extensions for escapes in regular expressions
• Sample scripts
• GNU sed’s limitations (and non-limitations)
• Extended regular expressions
• Examples
• Related commands
• Linux commands help

Syntax

sed OPTIONS… [SCRIPT] [INPUTFILE…]

If you do not specify INPUTFILE, or if INPUTFILE is “-”, sed filters the contents of the standard input. The script is actually the first non-option parameter, which sed specially considers a script and not an input file if and only if none of the other options specifies a script to be executed (that is, if neither of the -e and -f options is specified).

Options

Sed programs

A sed program consists of one or more sed commands, passed in by one or more of the -e, -f, –expression, and –file options, or the first non-option argument if none of these options are used. This documentation frequently refers to “the” sed script; this should be understood to mean the in-order catenation of all of the scripts and script-files passed in.

Commands within a script or script-file can be separated by semicolons (";") or newlines (ASCII code 10). Some commands, due to their syntax, cannot be followed by semicolons working as command separators and thus should be terminated with newlines or be placed at the end of a script or script-file. Commands can also be preceded with optional non-significant whitespace characters.

Each sed command consists of an optional address or address range (for instance, line numbers specifying what part of the file to operate on; see selecting lines for details), followed by a one-character command name and any additional command-specific code.

How sed works

sed maintains two data buffers: the active pattern space, and the auxiliary hold space. Both are initially empty.

sed operates by performing the following cycle on each line of input: first, sed reads one line from the input stream, removes any trailing newline, and places it in the pattern space. Then commands are executed; each command can have an address associated to it: addresses are a kind of condition code, and a command is only executed if the condition is verified before the command is to be executed.

When the end of the script is reached, unless the -n option is in use, the contents of pattern space are printed out to the output stream, adding back the trailing newline if it was removed. Then the next cycle starts for the next input line.

Unless special commands (like ‘D’) are used, the pattern space is deleted between two cycles. The hold space, on the other hand, keeps its data between cycles (see commands ‘h’, ‘H’, ‘x’, ‘g’, ‘G’ to move data between both buffers).

Selecting lines with sed

Addresses in a sed script can be in any of the following forms:

If no addresses are given, then all lines are matched; if one address is given, then only lines matching that address are matched.

An address range can be specified by specifying two addresses separated by a comma (","). An address range matches lines starting from where the first address matches, and continues until the second address matches (inclusively).

If the second address is a regexp, then checking for the ending match starts with the line following the line which matched the first address: a range always spans at least two lines (except of course if the input stream ends).

If the second address is a number less than (or equal to) the line matching the first address, then only the one line is matched.

GNU sed also supports some special two-address forms; all these are GNU extensions:

Appending the ! character to the end of an address specification negates the sense of the match. That is, if the ! character follows an address range, then only lines which do not match the address range will be selected. This also works for singleton addresses, and, perhaps perversely, for the null address.

Overview of regular expression syntax

To know how to use sed, understand regular expressions (“regexp” for short). A regular expression is a pattern that is matched against a subject string from left to right. Most characters are ordinary: they stand for themselves in a pattern, and match the corresponding characters in the subject. As a simple example, the pattern

The quick brown fox

…matches a portion of a subject string that is identical to itself. The power of regular expressions comes from the ability to include alternatives and repetitions in the pattern. These are encoded in the pattern by the use of special characters, which do not stand for themselves but instead are interpreted in some special way. Here is a brief description of regular expression syntax as used in sed:

Note that the regular expression matcher is greedy, i.e., matches are attempted from left to right and, if two or more matches are possible starting at the same character, it selects the longest.

• Apply postfix operators, like (abcd): this searches for zero or more whole sequences of ‘abcd’, while abcd would search for ‘abc’ followed by zero or more occurrences of ‘d’. Note that support for (abcd)* is required by POSIX 1003.1-2001, but many non-GNU implementations do not support it and hence it is not universally portable.Use back references (see below).

For example:

Often-used commands

If you use sed at all, you will probably want to know these commands.

The s command

The syntax of the s command (which stands for “substitute”) is: ‘s/regexp/replacement/flags’. The / characters may be uniformly replaced by any other single character within any given s command. The / character (or whatever other character is used in its stead) can appear in the regexp or replacement only if it’s preceded by a \ character.

The s command is probably the most important in sed and has a lot of different options. Its basic concept is simple: the s command attempts to match the pattern space against the supplied regexp; if the match is successful, then that portion of the pattern space which was matched is replaced with replacement.

The replacement can contain \n (n being a number from 1 to 9, inclusive) references, which refer to the portion of the match that is contained between the nth ( and its matching ). Also, the replacement can contain unescaped & characters which reference the whole matched portion of the pattern space. Finally, as a GNU sed extension, you can include a special sequence made of a backslash and one of the letters L, l, U, u, or E. The meaning is as follows:

To include a literal , &, or newline in the final replacement, precede the desired , &, or newline in the replacement with a .

The s command can be followed by zero or more of the following flags:

Less frequently-used commands

Though perhaps less frequently used than those in the previous section, some very small yet useful sed scripts can be built with these commands.

Commands for sed gurus

In most cases, use of these commands indicates that you are probably better off programming in something like awk or Perl. But occasionally one is committed to sticking with sed, and these commands can enable one to write quite convoluted scripts.

Commands specific to GNU sed

These commands are specific to GNU sed, so you must use them with care and only when you are sure that the script doesn’t need to be ported. They allow you to check for GNU sed extensions or do tasks that are required quite often, yet are unsupported by standard seds.

GNU extensions for escapes in regular expressions

Until now (on this page, anyway), we have only encountered escapes of the form ‘^’, for example, which tell sed not to interpret the circumflex (caret) as a special character, but rather to take it literally. For another example, ‘*’ matches a single asterisk rather than zero or more backslashes.

:eat #Quit silently on the last line: $d #Read another line, silently: N #Overwrite pattern space each time to save memory: g b eat.

This section introduces another kind of escape—that is, escapes that are applied to a character or sequence of characters that ordinarily are taken literally, and that sed replaces with a special character. This provides a way of encoding non-printable characters in patterns in a visible manner. There is no restriction on the appearance of non-printing characters in a sed script, but when a script is being prepared in the shell or by text editing, it is usually easier to use one of the following escape sequences than the binary character it represents:

‘\b’ (backspace) was omitted because of the conflict with the existing “word boundary” meaning.

Other escapes match a particular character class and are valid only in regular expressions:

Sample scripts

Here are some sed scripts to guide you in the art of mastering sed.

Sample script: centering lines

This script centers all lines of a file on 80 columns width. To change that width, the number in {…} must be replaced, and the number of added spaces also must be changed.

Note how the buffer commands are used to separate parts in the regular expressions to be matched, which is a common technique.

#!/usr/bin/sed -f

Put 80 spaces in the buffer

1 { x s/^$/ / s/^.*$/&&&&&&&&/ x }

del leading and trailing spaces

y/tab/ / s/^ *// s/ *$//

add a newline and 80 spaces to end of line

G

keep first 81 chars (80 + a newline)

s/^(.{81}).*$/\1/

\2 matches half of the spaces, which are moved to the beginning

s/^(.)\n(.)\2/\2\1/

Sample script: increment a number

This script is one of a few that demonstrate how to do arithmetic in sed. This script is indeed possible, but must be done manually.

To increment one number you add 1 to last digit, replacing it by the following digit. There is one exception: when the digit is a nine the previous digits must be also incremented until you don’t have a nine.

This solution is very clever and smart because it uses a single buffer; if you don’t have this limitation, the algorithm used in Numbering Lines is faster. It works by replacing trailing nines with an underscore, then using multiple s commands to increment the last digit, and then again substituting underscores with zeros.

#!/usr/bin/sed -f /[^0-9]/ d

replace all leading 9s by _ (any other character except digits, could

be used)

:d s/9(*)$/\1/ td

incr last digit only. The first line adds a most-significant

digit of 1 if we have to add a digit.

The tn commands are not necessary, but make the thing

faster

s/^(*)$/1\1/; tn s/8()$/9\1/; tn s/7(_)$/8\1/; tn s/6(*)$/7\1/; tn s/5()$/6\1/; tn s/4(_)$/5\1/; tn s/3(*)$/4\1/; tn s/2()$/3\1/; tn s/1(_)$/2\1/; tn s/0(*)$/1\1/; tn :n y//0/

Sample script: rename files to lowercase

This script is a pretty strange use of sed. We transform text, and transform it to be shell commands, then feed them to shell. Don’t worry, even worse hacks are done when using sed. Scripts have even been written converting the output of date into a bc program… So, stranger things have happened.

The main body of this is the sed script, which remaps the name from lower to upper (or vice versa) and even checks out if the remapped name is the same as the original name. Note how the script is parameterized using shell variables and proper quoting.

#! /bin/sh

rename files to lower/upper case…

usage:

move-to-lower *

move-to-upper *

or

move-to-lower -R .

move-to-upper -R .

help() { cat « eof Usage: $0 [-n] [-r] [-h] files… -n do nothing, only see what would be done -R recursive (use find) -h this message files files to remap to lower case Examples: $0 -n * (see if everything is ok, then…) $0 * $0 -R . eof } apply_cmd=‘sh’ finder=‘echo “[email protected]” | tr " " “\n”’ files_only= while : do case “$1” in -n) apply_cmd=‘cat’ ;; -R) finder=‘find “[email protected]” -type f’;; -h) help ; exit 1 ;; *) break ;; esac shift done if [ -z “$1” ]; then echo Usage: $0 [-h] [-n] [-r] files… exit 1 fi LOWER=‘abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz’ UPPER=‘ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ’ case basename $0 in upper) TO=$UPPER; FROM=$LOWER ;; *) FROM=$UPPER; TO=$LOWER ;; esac eval $finder | sed -n '

remove all trailing slashes

s//*$//

add ./ if there is no path, only a file name

///! s/^/.//

save path+file name

h

remove path

s/.*///

do conversion only on file name

y/’$FROM’/’$TO’/

now line contains original path+file, while

hold space contains the new file name

x

add converted file name to line, which now contains

path/file-name\nconverted-file-name

G

check if converted file name is equal to original file name,

if it is, do not print nothing

/^./(.)\n\1/b

now, transform path/fromfile\n, into

mv path/fromfile path/tofile and print it

s/^(./)(.)\n(.*)$/mv “\1\2” “\1\3”/p ’ | $apply_cmd

Sample script: print bash environment

This script strips the definition of the shell functions from the output of the set command in the Bourne-Again shell (bash).

#!/bin/bash set | sed -n ’ :x

if no occurrence of ‘=()’ print and load next line

/=()/! { p; b; } / () $/! { p; b; }

possible start of functions section

save the line in case this is a var like FOO="() "

h

if the next line has a brace, we quit because

nothing comes after functions

n /^{/ q

print the old line

x; p

work on the new line now

x; bx '

Sample script: reverse characters of lines

This script can reverse the position of characters in lines. The technique moves two characters at a time, hence it is faster than more intuitive implementations.

Note the tx command before the definition of the label. This command is often needed to reset the flag that is tested by the t command.

#!/usr/bin/sed -f /../! b

Reverse a line. Begin embedding the line between two newlines

s/^.*$/
&
/

Move first character at the end. The regexp matches until

there are zero or one characters between the markers

tx :x s/(\n.)(.*)(.\n)/\3\2\1/ tx

Remove the newline markers

s/\n//g

Sample script: reverse lines of files

This one begins a series of totally useless (yet interesting) scripts emulating various Unix commands. This, in particular, is a tac workalike.

Note that on implementations other than GNU sed this script might easily overflow internal buffers.

#!/usr/bin/sed -nf

reverse all lines of input, i.e., first line became last, …

from the second line, the buffer (which contains all previous lines)

is appended to current line, so, the order will be reversed

1! G

on the last line we’re done – print everything

$ p

store everything on the buffer again

h

Sample script: numbering lines

This script replaces ‘cat -n’; in fact it formats its output exactly like GNU cat does.

Of course this is completely useless for two reasons: first, because somebody else did it in C (the cat command), and second, because the following Bourne-shell script could be used for the same purpose and would be much faster:

#! /bin/sh sed -e “=” [email protected] | sed -e ’ s/^/ / N s/^ *(……)\n/\1 / '

It uses sed to print the line number, then groups lines two by two using N. Of course, this script does not teach as much as the one presented below.

The algorithm used for incrementing uses both buffers, so the line is printed as soon as possible and then discarded. The number is split so that changing digits go in a buffer and unchanged ones go in the other; the changed digits are modified in a single step (using a y command). The line number for the next line is then composed and stored in the hold space, to be used in the next iteration.

#!/usr/bin/sed -nf

Prime the pump on the first line

x /^$/ s/^.*$/1/

Add the correct line number before the pattern

G h

Format it and print it

s/^/ / s/^ *(……)\n/\1 /p

Get the line number from hold space; add a zero

if we’re going to add a digit on the next line

g s/\n.$// /^9$/ s/^/0/

separate changing/unchanged digits with an x

s/.9*$/x&/

keep changing digits in hold space

h s/^.*x// y/0123456789/1234567890/ x

keep unchanged digits in pattern space

s/x.*$//

compose the new number, remove the newline implicitly added by G

G s/\n// h

Sample script: numbering non-blank lines

Emulating ‘cat -b’ is almost the same as ‘cat -n’: we only have to select which lines are to be numbered and which are not.

The part that is common to this script and the previous one is not commented to show how important it is to comment sed scripts properly…

#!/usr/bin/sed -nf /^$/ { p b }

Same as cat -n from now

x /^$/ s/^.$/1/ G h s/^/ / s/^ (……)\n/\1 /p x s/\n.$// /^9$/ s/^/0/ s/.9*$/x&/ h s/^.x// y/0123456789/1234567890/ x s/x.$// G s/\n// h

Sample script: counting characters

This script shows another way to do arithmetic with sed. In this case, we have to add possibly large numbers, so implementing this by successive increments would not be feasible (and possibly even more complicated to contrive than this script).

The approach is to map numbers to letters, kind of an abacus implemented with sed. ‘a’s are units, ‘b’s are tens and so on: we add the number of characters on the current line as units, and then propagate the carry to tens, hundreds, and so on.

As usual, running totals are kept in hold space.

On the last line, we convert the abacus form back to decimal. For the sake of variety, this is done with a loop rather than with some 80 s commands: first we convert units, removing ‘a’s from the number; then we rotate letters so that tens become ‘a’s, and so on until no more letters remain.

#!/usr/bin/sed -nf

Add n+1 a’s to hold space (+1 is for the newline)

s/./a/g H x s/\n/a/

Do the carry. The t’s and b’s are not necessary,

but they do speed up the thing

t a

a; s/aaaaaaaaaa/b/g; t b; b done

b; s/bbbbbbbbbb/c/g; t c; b done

c; s/cccccccccc/d/g; t d; b done

d; s/dddddddddd/e/g; t e; b done

e; s/eeeeeeeeee/f/g; t f; b done

f; s/ffffffffff/g/g; t g; b done

g; s/gggggggggg/h/g; t h; b done

h; s/hhhhhhhhhh//g

done $! { h b }

On the last line, convert back to decimal

: loop

/a/! s/[b-h]*/&0/

s/aaaaaaaaa/9/

s/aaaaaaaa/8/

s/aaaaaaa/7/

s/aaaaaa/6/

s/aaaaa/5/

s/aaaa/4/

s/aaa/3/

s/aa/2/

s/a/1/

next y/bcdefgh/abcdefg/ /[a-h]/ b loop p

Sample script: counting words

This script is almost the same as the previous one, once each of the words on the line is converted to a single ‘a’ (in the previous script each letter was changed to an ‘a’).

It is interesting that real wc programs have optimized loops for ‘wc -c’, so they are much slower at counting words rather than characters. This script’s bottleneck, instead, is arithmetic, and hence the word-counting one is faster (it has to manage smaller numbers).

Again, the common parts are not commented to show the importance of commenting sed scripts.

#!/usr/bin/sed -nf

Convert words to a’s

s/[ tab][ tab]/ /g s/^/ / s/ [^ ][^ ]/a /g s/ //g

Append them to hold space

H x s/\n//

From here on it is the same as in wc -c.

/aaaaaaaaaa/! bx; s/aaaaaaaaaa/b/g /bbbbbbbbbb/! bx; s/bbbbbbbbbb/c/g /cccccccccc/! bx; s/cccccccccc/d/g /dddddddddd/! bx; s/dddddddddd/e/g /eeeeeeeeee/! bx; s/eeeeeeeeee/f/g /ffffffffff/! bx; s/ffffffffff/g/g /gggggggggg/! bx; s/gggggggggg/h/g s/hhhhhhhhhh//g :x $! { h; b; } :y /a/! s/[b-h]*/&0/ s/aaaaaaaaa/9/ s/aaaaaaaa/8/ s/aaaaaaa/7/ s/aaaaaa/6/ s/aaaaa/5/ s/aaaa/4/ s/aaa/3/ s/aa/2/ s/a/1/ y/bcdefgh/abcdefg/ /[a-h]/ by p

Sample script: counting lines

Sed gives us ‘wc -l’ functionality for free. Here is the code:

#!/usr/bin/sed -nf $=

Sample script: printing the first lines

This script is probably the simplest useful sed script. It displays the first 10 lines of input; the number of displayed lines is right before the q command.

#!/usr/bin/sed -f 10q

Sample script: printing the last lines

Printing the last n lines rather than the first is more complex but indeed possible. The n is encoded in the second line, before the bang ("!") character.

This script is similar to the tac script (above) in that it keeps the final output in the hold space and prints it at the end:

#!/usr/bin/sed -nf 1! {; H; g; } 1,10 !s/[^\n]*\n// $p h

Mainly, the scripts keeps a window of 10 lines and slides it by adding a line and deleting the oldest (the substitution command on the second line works like a D command but does not restart the loop).

The “sliding window” technique is a very powerful way to write efficient and complex sed scripts, because commands like P would require a lot of work if implemented manually.

To introduce the technique, which is fully demonstrated in the rest of this chapter and is based on the N, P and D commands, here is an implementation of tail using a simple “sliding window.”

This looks complicated but in fact the working concept is the same as the last script: after we have kicked in the appropriate number of lines, however, we stop using the hold space to keep inter-line state, and instead use N and D to slide pattern space by one line:

#!/usr/bin/sed -f 1h 2,10 {; H; g; } $q 1,9d N D

Note how the first, second and fourth line are inactive after the first ten lines of input. After that, all the script does is: exiting on the last line of input, appending the next input line to pattern space, and removing the first line.

Sample script: make duplicate lines unique

This script is an example of the art of using the N, P and D commands, probably the most difficult to master.

#!/usr/bin/sed -f h :b

On the last line, print and exit

$b N /^(.*)\n\1$/ { # The two lines are identical. Undo the effect of # the n command. g bb }

If the N command had added the last line, print and exit

$b

The lines are different; print the first and go

back working on the second.

P D

As you can see, we maintain a 2-line window using P and D. This technique is often used in advanced sed scripts.

Sample script: print duplicated lines of input

This script prints only duplicated lines, like ‘uniq -d’.

#!/usr/bin/sed -nf $b N /^(.)\n\1$/ { # Print the first of the duplicated lines s/.\n// p # Loop until we get a different line :b $b N /^(.)\n\1$/ { s/.\n// bb } }

The last line cannot be followed by duplicates

$b

Found a different one. Leave it alone in the pattern space

and go back to the top, hunting its duplicates

D

Sample script: remove all duplicated lines

This script prints only unique lines, like ‘uniq -u’.

#!/usr/bin/sed -f

Search for a duplicate line — until that, print what you find.

$b N /^(.*)\n\1$/ ! { P D } :c

Got two equal lines in pattern space. At the

end of the file we exit

$d

Else, we keep reading lines with N until we

find a different one

s/.\n// N /^(.)\n\1$/ { bc }

Remove the last instance of the duplicate line

and go back to the top

D

Sample script: squeezing blank lines

As a final example, here are three scripts, of increasing complexity and speed, that implement the same function as ‘cat -s’, that is squeezing blank lines.

The first leaves a blank line at the beginning and end if there are some already.

#!/usr/bin/sed -f

on empty lines, join with next

Note there is a star in the regexp

:x /^\n*$/ { N bx }

now, squeeze all ‘\n’, this can be also done by:

s/^(\n)*/\1/

s/\n*/
/

This one is a bit more complex and removes all empty lines at the beginning. It does leave a single blank line at end if one was there.

#!/usr/bin/sed -f

delete all leading empty lines

1,/^./{ /./!d }

on an empty line we remove it and all the following

empty lines, but one

:x /./!{ N s/^\n$// tx }

This removes leading and trailing blank lines. It is also the fastest. Note that loops are completely done with n and b, without relying on sed to restart the script automatically at the end of a line.

#!/usr/bin/sed -nf

delete all (leading) blanks

/./!d

get here: so there is a non empty

:x

print it

p

get next

n

got chars? print it again, etc…

/./bx

no, don’t have chars: got an empty line

:z

get next, if last line we finish here so no trailing

empty lines are written

n

also empty? then ignore it, and get next… this will

remove ALL empty lines

/./!bz

all empty lines were deleted/ignored, but we have a non empty. As

what we want to do is to squeeze, insert a blank line artificially

i
bx

GNU sed’s limitations (and non-limitations)

For those who want to write portable sed scripts, be aware that some implementations are known to limit line lengths (for the pattern and hold spaces) to be no more than 4000 bytes. The POSIX standard specifies that conforming sed implementations shall support at least 8192 byte line lengths. GNU sed has no built-in limit on line length; as long as it can allocate more (virtual) memory, you can feed or construct lines as long as you like.

However, recursion is used to handle subpatterns and indefinite repetition. This indicates the available stack space may limit the size of the buffer that can be processed by certain patterns.

Extended regular expressions

The only difference between basic and extended regular expressions is in the behavior of a few characters: ‘?’, ‘+’, parentheses, and braces (‘{}’). While basic regular expressions require these to be escaped if you want them to behave as special characters, when using extended regular expressions you must escape them if you want them to match a literal character.

Examples

sed G myfile.txt > newfile.txt

Double-spaces the contents of file myfile.txt, and writes the output to the file newfile.txt.

sed = myfile.txt | sed ‘N;s/\n/. /’

Prefixes each line of myfile.txt with a line number, a period, and a space, and displays the output.

sed ’s/test/example/g’ myfile.txt > newfile.txt

Searches for the word “test” in myfile.txt and replaces every occurrence with the word “example”.

sed -n ‘$=’ myfile.txt

Counts the number of lines in myfile.txt and displays the results.

Related commands

awk — Interpreter for the AWK text processing programming language.ed — A simple text editor.grep — Filter text which matches a regular expression.replace — A string-replacement utility.